Applying a Gender Lens to the Study of Misinformation and Disinformation

This paper aims to contribute to the growing body of literature on gender-based misinformation and disinformation. It explores three cases where unverifi ed claims, false content, and hate speech were used to attack women, including women in visible positions, to manipulate public opinion and create polarization. The fi rst two cases originate from Bulgaria and Italy, while the third one focuses on conspiracy theories and falsehoods circulating before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. The questions we seek to answer are how misinformation and disinformation employ gender and gender-related concepts and stereotypes and how we can uncover, debunk, and counter such narratives by applying a gender lens. To answer these questions, we analyzed articles published online and identifi ed as containing harmful, misleading, and/or untruthful information by fact-checkers, researchers, and organizations studying disinformation. The analysis is supported by insights from seven semistructured interviews with experts on disinformation and gendered disinformation, conducted in 2023. Based on the case studies explored, we propose a non-exhaustive list of questions, which those who study and analyze hate speech, misinformation, and disinformation may use to uncover any gender-related aspects.