Recent advances in the direct electrochemical detection of drugs of abuse

In the last decade, the trafficking and use of illicit drugs showed a continuous incremental trend, remaining worldwide a challenging problem for the consequences on society, health, criminality and environment. The introduction on the market of new products and of illicit synthetic compounds represents a new challenging task for analytical chemistry, looking for rapid and accurate methods for the detection of illicit substances in seized street samples, biological fluids and wastewater. In this context, electrochemical sensors have shown promising results as an alternative to standard chromatographic and spectroscopic methods. This review aims at highlighting the most recent progresses in the use of electrochemistry for the detection of drugs of abuse, mainly including well consolidated substances like cannabinoids, cocaine, opioids, ecstasy and methamphetamine as well as new psychoactive molecules widely diffused at the present time. Different strategies have been described particularly consisting in the direct electrochemical oxidation of the target analyte. The implementation of tailored-made portable instruments with electrochemical detection methods constitutes an added value to improve the effectiveness of electrochemical sensors for the identification of psychoactive substances when performing large-scale sampling tests.