Swat after the Indo‑Greeks. The City, the Sanctuaries and the Economy. An Archaeological Overview on the Saka‑Parthian period

The article presents an overview of the archaeological data (updated to 2021) from the recent excavations at Barikot, Swat (Pakistan), and preliminary results from ongoing studies of the other archaeological evidence related to the post‑Indo‑Greek phases in Swat and Gandhara (ca. 50 BC–50 AD). The article introduces some of the most distinctive markers of material culture in this context, as well as the evidence of new fortifications and building activity both in urban centres and Buddhist sanctuaries. The data collected thus far underpin a new interpretation of this little‑known historical phase of ancient northwestern India. The phase is characterized by a building program and political vibrancy, which do not correspond with the model of an economic recession advanced by scholars thus far. Indeed, in this framework, the so‑called ‘Great Debasement’ attributed to Azes II, might have had alternative implications.